Gautama: The Nyāya Philosophy

The book is organized into seven major parts. The first part presents the central theme of Nyāya through its categories (padārtha). The second part develops the theory of cognition by examining pramāṇa, perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), analogy (upamāna), and word/testimony (śabda). The third part discusses the concept of proof, including doubt, objective, established tenet, syllogistic members, fallacious reasons, disputation, and ascertainment. The fourth part turns to the technique of refutation, covering discourse, quibble, legitimate objection, deficiency, and rival philosophical doctrines. The fifth part studies the objects of cognition, especially the self (ātman), body, cognition, activity, defect, life after death, result, pain, and release. The sixth part analyzes the source of saṃsāra through misapprehension and knowledge of the true nature of things. The final part offers reflections on the Nyāya system as a whole.