The Elements of Ethics

Book I. The Science of Ethics Chapter I. The Problem of Ethics: This opening chapter explains why ethics becomes necessary as a reflective science. Muirhead begins from Plato’s idea that philosophy arises from wonder, then asks what kind of “wonder” gives rise to ethics. He defines ethics through its Greek and Latin roots as the science of moral character, conduct, custom and habit. The chapter argues that ethical inquiry does not arise when habits function smoothly, but when inherited customs fail to answer new social, political and intellectual problems. It gives a historical illustration from Greece, especially the age of the Sophists, where traditional ideas of justice, piety and morality were questioned, preparing the way for Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Muirhead also connects this ancient situation with modern moral unrest: conflicts between faith and reason, individual and state, rights and duties, self-interest and common good, pleasure and duty, freedom and necessity. The chapter concludes that ethical science is both critical and reconstructive: it challenges obsolete customs, but its deeper aim is to recover the rational and permanent value within moral and social institutions. Chapter II. Can there be a Science of Ethics?: Discusses whether conduct and character can be treated scientifically. It raises the problem of freedom, causation, prediction and moral responsibility. Chapter III. Scope of the Science of Ethics: Clarifies the relation of ethics to natural sciences, practical sciences, politics and economics. Book II. Moral Judgment Chapter I. The Object of Moral Judgment: Examines conduct, will, desire, character, motive, intention and consequences. Chapter II. The Standard of Moral Judgment — Moral Law: Discusses forms of moral judgment, conscience, external law, intuitionalism and morality as determined by an end. Chapter III. Reason and Conscience: Analyzes purpose, rational authority and conscience as the unity of purposes. Book III. Theories of the End Chapter I. The End as Pleasure: Empirical Hedonism: Reviews pleasure, happiness, quantity and quality of pleasure, and difficulties within hedonistic theories. Chapter II. The End as Self-Conquest: Studies ascetic and self-mastery theories, including Cynicism, Stoicism and Kant. Chapter III. Evolutionary Hedonism: Examines utilitarianism, evolution, society and the limits of evolutionary ethics. Book IV. The End as Good Chapter I. The End as Common Good: Presents the social nature of moral life and the dependence of individual development on society. Chapter II. The Unity of the Good: Treats apparent conflicts of moral standards and the relation between self-development and self-surrender. Chapter III. Forms of the Good: Discusses duties, virtues and institutions. Chapter IV. Cardinal Virtues: Explains temperance, courage, justice and wisdom. Book V. Moral Progress Chapter I. The Standard as Relative: Examines relativity in moral standards. Chapter II. The Standard as Progressive: Interprets morality through the idea of historical and social progress. Chapter III. The Standard as Ideal: Considers conscience, consciousness, social environment, moral progress and the ideal character of ethical life.