Theories on the Foundation of the Nuns’ Order: A Critical Evaluation

The article begins with the traditional account in which Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī repeatedly requests permission for women to enter the homeless life. After the Buddha initially refuses, she and a group of Śākyan women follow him to Vaiśālī, where Ānanda intervenes on their behalf and the Buddha permits the establishment of the nuns’ order. Versions of this narrative, including the prediction that the admission of women would shorten the duration of the Dharma, occur in the Vinaya traditions of several early Buddhist schools, including both Sthavira-related and Mahāsāṃghika sources. The main analysis assesses the textual assumptions, chronology, terminology, and methodological limitations underlying the four alternative theories. Particular attention is given to the distinction between lay and monastic attainment, the ordination terminology of the Bhikkhunīvibhaṅga, reported interactions between the Buddha and nuns, comparisons with Jain monasticism, and the transmission of foundation narratives across Buddhist schools. The article concludes that future research must consider the complete range of Pāli, Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan evidence and allow the diverse voices of the texts to remain visible. Keywords